The last battle that ended Ming Dynasty full too much undertable political tricks and enigmas haven‘t answer till today and wait historians research.
Thursday, October 9, 2008
Occupied Beijing
Occupied Beijing is when Li Zicheng led people army and raised two ways total offensive toward capital Beijing, last imperial highest rank of Eunuch Du Zujuopen order open Beijing city wall‘s door whom said: finished Ming Dynasty's 276 years governed.
The last battle that ended Ming Dynasty full too much undertable political tricks and enigmas haven‘t answer till today and wait historians research.
The last battle that ended Ming Dynasty full too much undertable political tricks and enigmas haven‘t answer till today and wait historians research.
Mutianyu
Mutianyu is a section of the located in Huairou County 70 northeast of Beijing. The Mutianyu section of the Great Wall is connected with in the west and Gubeikou Gateway in the east. As one of the best-preserved parts of the Great Wall, Mutianyu section of Great Wall used to serve as the northern barrier defending the capital and the imperial tombs.
First built in the mid-6th century during the Northern Qi, Mutianyu Great Wall is older than the Badaling section of the Great Wall. In the Ming dynasty, under the supervision of General Xu Da, construction of the present wall began on the foundation of the wall of Northern Qi. In 1404, a pass was built in the wall. In 1569, the Mutianyu Great Wall was rebuilt and till today most parts of it are well preserved. The Mutianyu Great Wall has the largest construction scale and best quality among all sections of Great Wall.
Built mainly with granite, the wall is 7-8 meters high and the top is 4-5 meters wide. Compared with other sections of Great Wall, Mutianyu Great Wall possesses unique characteristics in its construction.
* Watchtowers are densely placed along this section of the Great Wall - 22 watchtowers on this 2,250-meter-long stretch.
* Both the outer and inner parapets are crenelated with merlons, so that shots could be fired at the enemy on both sides - a feature very rare on other parts of the Great Wall.
* The Mutianyu Pass consists of 3 watchtowers, one big in the center and two smaller on both sides. Standing on the same terrace, the three watchtowers are connected to each other inside and compose a rarely seen structure among all sections of Great Wall.
Besides, this section of Great Wall is surrounded by woodland and streams. The forest-coverage rate is over 90 percent.
Today, this section of wall is open to visitors. A cable car is available to help visitors. Another feature of the wall at Mutianyu is the wheeled toboggan ride down from the wall on a winding metal track.
Adjacent to the Mutianyu wall is its namesake village, which has been hailed by the Chinese government as a model village because of its rebirth largely thanks to tourism and glassware industries. Mutianyu Village is twinned with the village of Shelburne Falls in the of Massachusetts.
On August 7th 2007, members of the pro-Tibetan organization, Students for a Free Tibet, targeted the Mutianyu section of the Great Wall between towers 4 and 6, to demonstrate against the Chinese occupation of Tibet and mark the one-year countdown to the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics. They hung a 450 sq. ft. banner which read, "One World, One Dream, Free Tibet 2008" in both and .
Opening Hours: 07:30 to 17:20
Recommended Time for a Visit: Two and a half hours
How to get there: Take Bus no 916 from Dongzhimen or take tourist Bus No. 6 at Xuanwumen.
First built in the mid-6th century during the Northern Qi, Mutianyu Great Wall is older than the Badaling section of the Great Wall. In the Ming dynasty, under the supervision of General Xu Da, construction of the present wall began on the foundation of the wall of Northern Qi. In 1404, a pass was built in the wall. In 1569, the Mutianyu Great Wall was rebuilt and till today most parts of it are well preserved. The Mutianyu Great Wall has the largest construction scale and best quality among all sections of Great Wall.
Built mainly with granite, the wall is 7-8 meters high and the top is 4-5 meters wide. Compared with other sections of Great Wall, Mutianyu Great Wall possesses unique characteristics in its construction.
* Watchtowers are densely placed along this section of the Great Wall - 22 watchtowers on this 2,250-meter-long stretch.
* Both the outer and inner parapets are crenelated with merlons, so that shots could be fired at the enemy on both sides - a feature very rare on other parts of the Great Wall.
* The Mutianyu Pass consists of 3 watchtowers, one big in the center and two smaller on both sides. Standing on the same terrace, the three watchtowers are connected to each other inside and compose a rarely seen structure among all sections of Great Wall.
Besides, this section of Great Wall is surrounded by woodland and streams. The forest-coverage rate is over 90 percent.
Today, this section of wall is open to visitors. A cable car is available to help visitors. Another feature of the wall at Mutianyu is the wheeled toboggan ride down from the wall on a winding metal track.
Adjacent to the Mutianyu wall is its namesake village, which has been hailed by the Chinese government as a model village because of its rebirth largely thanks to tourism and glassware industries. Mutianyu Village is twinned with the village of Shelburne Falls in the of Massachusetts.
On August 7th 2007, members of the pro-Tibetan organization, Students for a Free Tibet, targeted the Mutianyu section of the Great Wall between towers 4 and 6, to demonstrate against the Chinese occupation of Tibet and mark the one-year countdown to the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics. They hung a 450 sq. ft. banner which read, "One World, One Dream, Free Tibet 2008" in both and .
Tips for Mutianyu
Opening Hours: 07:30 to 17:20
Recommended Time for a Visit: Two and a half hours
How to get there: Take Bus no 916 from Dongzhimen or take tourist Bus No. 6 at Xuanwumen.
Juyongguan
Juyongguan or Juyong Pass is located in an 18 kilometer-long valley named "Guangou" which is inside Changping County more than 50 kilometers from Beijing City. It is one of the three greatest passes of the Great Wall of China. The other two passes are and Shanhaiguan.
It had many different names in the past . However, the name "Juyongguan" was used by more than three dynasties. It was first used in the Qin Dynasty when Emperor Qinshihuang ordered to build the Great Wall. Juyongguan Pass has two passes, one at the south and one at the north. The south one is called "Nan Pass" and the north one is called "Badaling".
This pass was connected to the Great Wall in the Northern and Southern Dynasties.
In the middle of Juyongguan, there is a "Cloud Platform" with another name of "Crossing Street Tower". It was made of white marble in the Yuan Dynasty with a height of 9.5 meters. Around the top of the platform there are many structures such as stone railings and a watching post. They are still kept in the style of the Yuan Dynasty. In the middle of the base of the platform there is an arched door where men, horses and carriages could pass through. Many animal images were carved in the arched hole and the arched door. On the walls of both sides of the door, the statues of gods and scriptures are carved. There were three white towers on the platform in the past and were destroyed in the transitional period between the Yuan Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty. Later a Tai'an Temple was built on the platform but was later destroyed in the Qing Dynasty.
The present Pass was built in the Ming Dynasty and received much renovation later. It is a very important strategic place connecting the inner land and the area near the northern border of China. It is also a defensive place for the ancient Beijing City.
Once there were lush flowers and trees around the Pass like layers of green waves, so it got the good name of "Juyong Green Layers", which belongs to one of "Yanjing Eight Best Sceneries". The Chinese government is trying to restore the vegetation and although some progress has been made, the vegetation has not recovered to its past level.
It had many different names in the past . However, the name "Juyongguan" was used by more than three dynasties. It was first used in the Qin Dynasty when Emperor Qinshihuang ordered to build the Great Wall. Juyongguan Pass has two passes, one at the south and one at the north. The south one is called "Nan Pass" and the north one is called "Badaling".
This pass was connected to the Great Wall in the Northern and Southern Dynasties.
In the middle of Juyongguan, there is a "Cloud Platform" with another name of "Crossing Street Tower". It was made of white marble in the Yuan Dynasty with a height of 9.5 meters. Around the top of the platform there are many structures such as stone railings and a watching post. They are still kept in the style of the Yuan Dynasty. In the middle of the base of the platform there is an arched door where men, horses and carriages could pass through. Many animal images were carved in the arched hole and the arched door. On the walls of both sides of the door, the statues of gods and scriptures are carved. There were three white towers on the platform in the past and were destroyed in the transitional period between the Yuan Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty. Later a Tai'an Temple was built on the platform but was later destroyed in the Qing Dynasty.
The present Pass was built in the Ming Dynasty and received much renovation later. It is a very important strategic place connecting the inner land and the area near the northern border of China. It is also a defensive place for the ancient Beijing City.
Once there were lush flowers and trees around the Pass like layers of green waves, so it got the good name of "Juyong Green Layers", which belongs to one of "Yanjing Eight Best Sceneries". The Chinese government is trying to restore the vegetation and although some progress has been made, the vegetation has not recovered to its past level.
Gallery
Jumenbu
Jumenbu , is a fortress of the Ming Great Wall Shanxi Section, located in Datong city in Shanxi province, China.
Jumenbu is a fortress for guarding the Great Wall of China, and it is a part of the Great Wall defence system. Jumenbu is situated in a brae 2.5 km away from the Great Wall. It is designed to defend against invasion and harry the nomads of Mongolia. The original name is Jumengbu, which means a fortress used to resist the Mongols, and was renamed afterwards.
The fortress is not big, and has only a gate on the east with ''wengcheng'' on the east. The wall is built from earth with bricks on the surface.
Jumenbu is a fortress for guarding the Great Wall of China, and it is a part of the Great Wall defence system. Jumenbu is situated in a brae 2.5 km away from the Great Wall. It is designed to defend against invasion and harry the nomads of Mongolia. The original name is Jumengbu, which means a fortress used to resist the Mongols, and was renamed afterwards.
The fortress is not big, and has only a gate on the east with ''wengcheng'' on the east. The wall is built from earth with bricks on the surface.
Jinshanling
Jinshanling , a section of the Great Wall of China located in the mountainous area in Luanping county 120 km northeast of Beijing. This section of the wall is connected with the Simatai section. It was built from 1570 during the Ming Dynasty.
The Jinshanling section of the Great Wall is 10.5 km long with 5 passes, 67 towers and 2 beacon towers. The initial section of the wall has been restored to original condition, but the condition of the wall deteriorates towards its natural state as it approaches Simatai. The entrance fee is 40 RMB. A cable car has been constructed to take visitors to the highest point along the wall. There is an additional admission charge of 50 RMB to continue on to the Simatai section, and a 5 RMB fee to cross the suspension bridge.
The Jinshanling section of the Great Wall is 10.5 km long with 5 passes, 67 towers and 2 beacon towers. The initial section of the wall has been restored to original condition, but the condition of the wall deteriorates towards its natural state as it approaches Simatai. The entrance fee is 40 RMB. A cable car has been constructed to take visitors to the highest point along the wall. There is an additional admission charge of 50 RMB to continue on to the Simatai section, and a 5 RMB fee to cross the suspension bridge.
Jiayuguan (pass)
Jiayuguan or Jiayu Pass is the first pass at the west end of the Great Wall of China, near the city of in Gansu province. It has also been called "Jiayuguan Pass"; however, this form is since "guan" means "pass" in Chinese. Along with Juyongguan and Shanhaiguan, it is one of the main passes of the Great Wall.
The pass is located at the narrowest point of the western section of the Hexi Corridor, 6 kilometers southwest of the city of in Gansu. The structure lies between two hills, one of which is called Jiayuguan Hill. It was built near an oasis that was then on the extreme western edge of China.
The pass is trapezoid-shaped with a perimeter of 733 meters and an area of more than 33,500 square meters. The total length of the city wall is 733 meters and the height is 11 meters.
There are two gates: one on the east side of the pass, and the other on the west side. On each gate there is a building. An inscription of "Jiayuguan" in Chinese is written on a tablet at the building at the west gate. The south and north sides of the pass are connected to the Great Wall. There is a turret on each corner of the pass. On the north side, inside the two gates, there are wide roads leading to the top of the pass.
Jiayuguan consists of three defense lines: an inner city, an outer city and a moat.
A fabulous legend recounts the meticulous planning involved in the construction of the pass. According to legend, when Jiayuguan was being planned, the official in charge asked the designer to estimate the exact number of bricks required and the designer gave him a number. The official questioned his judgment, asking him if that would be enough, so the designer added one brick. When Jiayuguan was finished, there was one brick left over, which was placed loose on one of the gates where it remains today.
The structure was initially built during the early Ming dynasty, sometime around the year 1372. The fortress there was greatly strengthened due to fear of an invasion by Timur, but Timur died of old age while leading an army toward China.
Among the passes on the Great Wall, Jiayuguan is the most intact surviving ancient military building. The pass is also known by the name the "First and Greatest Pass Under Heaven" ,which is not to be confused with the "First Pass under Heaven" , a name for Shanhaiguan at the east end of the Great Wall near Qinhuangdao, Hebei.
The pass was a key waypoint of the ancient Silk Road.
Jiayuguan has a somewhat fearsome reputation because Chinese people who were banished were ordered to leave through Jiayuguan for the west, never to return.
Around Jiayuguan there are many historic sites such as the Mogao Caves. Many frescos were found in the areas around Jiayuguan.
Location
The pass is located at the narrowest point of the western section of the Hexi Corridor, 6 kilometers southwest of the city of in Gansu. The structure lies between two hills, one of which is called Jiayuguan Hill. It was built near an oasis that was then on the extreme western edge of China.
Description
The pass is trapezoid-shaped with a perimeter of 733 meters and an area of more than 33,500 square meters. The total length of the city wall is 733 meters and the height is 11 meters.
There are two gates: one on the east side of the pass, and the other on the west side. On each gate there is a building. An inscription of "Jiayuguan" in Chinese is written on a tablet at the building at the west gate. The south and north sides of the pass are connected to the Great Wall. There is a turret on each corner of the pass. On the north side, inside the two gates, there are wide roads leading to the top of the pass.
Jiayuguan consists of three defense lines: an inner city, an outer city and a moat.
Legend and History
A fabulous legend recounts the meticulous planning involved in the construction of the pass. According to legend, when Jiayuguan was being planned, the official in charge asked the designer to estimate the exact number of bricks required and the designer gave him a number. The official questioned his judgment, asking him if that would be enough, so the designer added one brick. When Jiayuguan was finished, there was one brick left over, which was placed loose on one of the gates where it remains today.
The structure was initially built during the early Ming dynasty, sometime around the year 1372. The fortress there was greatly strengthened due to fear of an invasion by Timur, but Timur died of old age while leading an army toward China.
Significance
Among the passes on the Great Wall, Jiayuguan is the most intact surviving ancient military building. The pass is also known by the name the "First and Greatest Pass Under Heaven" ,which is not to be confused with the "First Pass under Heaven" , a name for Shanhaiguan at the east end of the Great Wall near Qinhuangdao, Hebei.
The pass was a key waypoint of the ancient Silk Road.
Jiayuguan has a somewhat fearsome reputation because Chinese people who were banished were ordered to leave through Jiayuguan for the west, never to return.
Around Jiayuguan there are many historic sites such as the Mogao Caves. Many frescos were found in the areas around Jiayuguan.
Jiankou
Jiankou is a section of the located in the Huairou District 73km north of Beijing. The Jiankou section of the is located between the Mutianyu--ten kilometers to the east--and the Huanghuacheng sections of the . This section of the has fallen into disrepair and this, along with its location along a mountain ridge bordered by jagged cliffs and steep drop-offs, makes the Jiankou segment of the potentially dangerous to climb.
The Jiankou section of the wall was constructed in 1368 during the period of the Ming Dynasty. It is made of large white rocks which can be seen from a great distance.
There are many scenic sites along the Jiankou , one of which is the enemy observation tower known as "The Eagle Flies Facing Upward". This observation tower was built on a mountain which forms the highest section of the Jiankou . The "Sky Stairs" are another famous scenic spot. At this location of the the stairs go practically straight up, and they are so narrow that it is barely possible to obtain a foothold. Other scenic areas include: the Beijing Knot, where three different sections of the converge; the Nine-Eye Tower, so named because of the nine observation holes in it; the Zhengbei Tower , the Cloud Stairs, and many other enemy observation towers.
The Jiankou section of the wall was constructed in 1368 during the period of the Ming Dynasty. It is made of large white rocks which can be seen from a great distance.
There are many scenic sites along the Jiankou , one of which is the enemy observation tower known as "The Eagle Flies Facing Upward". This observation tower was built on a mountain which forms the highest section of the Jiankou . The "Sky Stairs" are another famous scenic spot. At this location of the the stairs go practically straight up, and they are so narrow that it is barely possible to obtain a foothold. Other scenic areas include: the Beijing Knot, where three different sections of the converge; the Nine-Eye Tower, so named because of the nine observation holes in it; the Zhengbei Tower , the Cloud Stairs, and many other enemy observation towers.
Huanghuacheng
Huanghuacheng is a village in Jiuduhe, Huairou District, Beijing, the north of bordering onto the Great wall of China.
Great Wall of Qi
The Great Wall of Qi is the oldest existing great wall in China. Construction of the wall started in 685 BCE by the state of Qi, to defend against an invasion by the kingdom of Chu. It stretches from the modern city of Jinan to the city of Qingdao.
Defense of the Great Wall
The Defense of the Great Wall was a between the armies of Republic of China and Empire of Japan, which took place before the Second Sino-Japanese War officially commenced in 1937. It is known in as and in many English sources as the .
During this campaign, Japan successfully captured the Inner Mongolian province of Rehe from the warlord Zhang Xueliang and annexed it to the new state of Manchukuo, whose southern frontier was thus extended to the Great Wall of China.
Shanhaiguan is the fortified eastern end of the Great Wall of China, where the Great Wall meets the ocean. Per the terms of the 1901 Boxer Rebellion accord, the Imperial Japanese Army maintained a small garrison of around 200 men at Shanhaiguan. On the night of 1 January 1933, the Japanese garrison commander staged an "incident" by exploding a few hand grenades and firing a few shots. The Kwantung Army used this as an excuse to demand that the Chinese 626th Regiment of the Northeastern Army, guarding Shanhaiguan, evacuate the pass defenses.
When the Chinese garrison refused, the issued an ultimatum, and then attacked the pass with the support of 4 armoured trains and 10 tanks. The Japanese attack was supported by close air support from bombers, and by shelling by warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy's IJN 2nd Fleet with a dozen warships offshore. On January 3, Chinese regimental commander Shi Shian, unable to withstand this attack, evacuated from his positions after losing half of his force, while the Japanese incurred casualties estimated at 500.
The province of Rehe, on the northern side of the Great Wall was the next target. Declaring the province to be historically a portion of Manchuria, the Japanese Army initially hoped to secure it through the defection of General Tang Yulin to the Manchukuo cause. When this failed, the military option was placed into action. The Japanese army's requested Emperor Hirohito's sanction for the 'strategic operation' against Chinese forces in Rehe. Hoping that it was the last of the army's operations in the area and that it would bring an end to the Manchurian matter, the Emperor approved, while stating explicitly that the army was not go beyond the Great Wall.
On February 23, 1933, the offensive was launched. On February 25, Chaoyang and Kailu were taken. On March 2, the Japanese 4th Cavalry Brigade encountered resistance from the forces of Sun Dianying, and after days of fighting, took Chifeng. On March 4, Japanese cavalry and the 1st Special Tank Company took Chengde the capital of Rehe.
Falling back from Rehe, Wan Fulin's 32nd Corps retreated to Lengkou Pass, while the 29th Corps of General Song Zheyuan also fell back, Zhang Zuoxiang's 37th Division retreated to Xifengkou Pass, General Guan Linzheng's 25th Division to the Gubeikou Pass.
On March 4, the 139th Division of the KMT 32nd Corps managed to hold Lengkou Pass, and on March 7, KMT 67th Corps withstood attacks by the 16th Brigade of the Japanese 8th Division, at Gubeikou Pass.
On March 9, Chiang Kai-shek discussed with Zhang Xueliang about resisting Japanese invasion in Baoding in Hebei Province. Chiang Kai-shek began to relocate his forces away from his campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet, which would include the forces of Huang Jie, Xu Tingyao and Guan Linzheng. Chiang Kai-shek also called over Fu Zuoyi's 7th Corps from Suiyuan. However, his actions were too late and the reinforcements were of insufficient strength to stop the Japanese advance.
On March 11, Japanese troops pushed up to the Great Wall itself. On March 12, Zhang Xueliang resigned his post to He Yingqin, who as the new leader of the Northeastern Army was assigned the duty of securing defensive positions along the Great Wall.
Over twenty close assaults were launched, with sword-armed Northwestern Army soldiers repelling them. However on March 21, the Japanese took Yiyuankou Pass. The KMT 29th Corps evacuated from Xifengkou Pass on April 8. On April 11, Japanese troops retook Lengkou Pass after dozens of seesaw fights over the pass defenses and Chinese forces at Jielingkou abandoned that pass. The Chinese army was significantly underarmed in comparison with the Japanese in heavy weapons and many units were equipped only with trench s, a few heavy machine guns, some light machine guns and rifles, but mostly handguns, hand grenades, and traditional . Beaten back by overwhelming Japanese firepower, on May 20, the Chinese army retreated from their remaining positions on the Great Wall.
Although the NRA suffered defeat in the end, several individual NRA units like the He Zhuguo platoon managed to hold off the better equipped Japanese army for up to 3 days before being overrun. Some NRA Divisions also managed to win minor victories in passes like Xifengkuo and Gubeikou by using the ramparts to move soldiers from one sector to another in the Great Wall, just like the Ming dynasty soldiers before them.
On May 22, 1933, Chinese and Japanese representatives met at Tanggu, Tianjin, to negotiate an end of the conflict. The resulting Tanggu Truce created a demilitarized zone extending one hundred kilometers south of the Great Wall, which the Chinese army was prohibited from entering, thus greatly reducing the territorial security of China proper, whereas the Japanese were permitted to use reconnaissance aircraft or ground units to make sure that the Chinese complied. Furthermore, the Chinese government was forced to acknowledge the de facto independence of Manchukuo and the loss of Rehe.
That the terms of the truce were so favorable to Japan and unfavorable to China created a public backlash against the Kuomingtang government and greatly influenced Zhang Xueliang's later determination to kidnap Chiang Kai-shek in the Xi'an Incident to form a united front with the Communists against Japan.
The Great Wall was the site of one of the final battles of the war, some 12 years later. On 30 August 1945 after the Japanese surrender, a minor "mopping up" battle lasting for 3 hours was fought in the Shanghaiguan region between Chinese forces and 3000 Japanese soldiers refusing orders to surrender. Chinese forces commanded by Zeng Kelin backed with Soviet Red Army artillery annihilated the Japanese holdouts.
*An action movie was made in Hong Kong in called 7 Man Army about seven Chinese soldiers who managed to hold off against 20,000 Japanese soldiers for 5 days.
* SW Jehol Province, SE Chahar Province, NW Hebei Province
* S Jehol Province, NE Hebei Province, Great Wall to Shanhaikuan upper Luan River area
* NE Hebei Luan River area
During this campaign, Japan successfully captured the Inner Mongolian province of Rehe from the warlord Zhang Xueliang and annexed it to the new state of Manchukuo, whose southern frontier was thus extended to the Great Wall of China.
Battle of Shanhai Pass
Shanhaiguan is the fortified eastern end of the Great Wall of China, where the Great Wall meets the ocean. Per the terms of the 1901 Boxer Rebellion accord, the Imperial Japanese Army maintained a small garrison of around 200 men at Shanhaiguan. On the night of 1 January 1933, the Japanese garrison commander staged an "incident" by exploding a few hand grenades and firing a few shots. The Kwantung Army used this as an excuse to demand that the Chinese 626th Regiment of the Northeastern Army, guarding Shanhaiguan, evacuate the pass defenses.
When the Chinese garrison refused, the issued an ultimatum, and then attacked the pass with the support of 4 armoured trains and 10 tanks. The Japanese attack was supported by close air support from bombers, and by shelling by warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy's IJN 2nd Fleet with a dozen warships offshore. On January 3, Chinese regimental commander Shi Shian, unable to withstand this attack, evacuated from his positions after losing half of his force, while the Japanese incurred casualties estimated at 500.
The Battle of Rehe
The province of Rehe, on the northern side of the Great Wall was the next target. Declaring the province to be historically a portion of Manchuria, the Japanese Army initially hoped to secure it through the defection of General Tang Yulin to the Manchukuo cause. When this failed, the military option was placed into action. The Japanese army's requested Emperor Hirohito's sanction for the 'strategic operation' against Chinese forces in Rehe. Hoping that it was the last of the army's operations in the area and that it would bring an end to the Manchurian matter, the Emperor approved, while stating explicitly that the army was not go beyond the Great Wall.
On February 23, 1933, the offensive was launched. On February 25, Chaoyang and Kailu were taken. On March 2, the Japanese 4th Cavalry Brigade encountered resistance from the forces of Sun Dianying, and after days of fighting, took Chifeng. On March 4, Japanese cavalry and the 1st Special Tank Company took Chengde the capital of Rehe.
The Battle of the Great Wall
Falling back from Rehe, Wan Fulin's 32nd Corps retreated to Lengkou Pass, while the 29th Corps of General Song Zheyuan also fell back, Zhang Zuoxiang's 37th Division retreated to Xifengkou Pass, General Guan Linzheng's 25th Division to the Gubeikou Pass.
On March 4, the 139th Division of the KMT 32nd Corps managed to hold Lengkou Pass, and on March 7, KMT 67th Corps withstood attacks by the 16th Brigade of the Japanese 8th Division, at Gubeikou Pass.
On March 9, Chiang Kai-shek discussed with Zhang Xueliang about resisting Japanese invasion in Baoding in Hebei Province. Chiang Kai-shek began to relocate his forces away from his campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet, which would include the forces of Huang Jie, Xu Tingyao and Guan Linzheng. Chiang Kai-shek also called over Fu Zuoyi's 7th Corps from Suiyuan. However, his actions were too late and the reinforcements were of insufficient strength to stop the Japanese advance.
On March 11, Japanese troops pushed up to the Great Wall itself. On March 12, Zhang Xueliang resigned his post to He Yingqin, who as the new leader of the Northeastern Army was assigned the duty of securing defensive positions along the Great Wall.
Over twenty close assaults were launched, with sword-armed Northwestern Army soldiers repelling them. However on March 21, the Japanese took Yiyuankou Pass. The KMT 29th Corps evacuated from Xifengkou Pass on April 8. On April 11, Japanese troops retook Lengkou Pass after dozens of seesaw fights over the pass defenses and Chinese forces at Jielingkou abandoned that pass. The Chinese army was significantly underarmed in comparison with the Japanese in heavy weapons and many units were equipped only with trench s, a few heavy machine guns, some light machine guns and rifles, but mostly handguns, hand grenades, and traditional . Beaten back by overwhelming Japanese firepower, on May 20, the Chinese army retreated from their remaining positions on the Great Wall.
Although the NRA suffered defeat in the end, several individual NRA units like the He Zhuguo platoon managed to hold off the better equipped Japanese army for up to 3 days before being overrun. Some NRA Divisions also managed to win minor victories in passes like Xifengkuo and Gubeikou by using the ramparts to move soldiers from one sector to another in the Great Wall, just like the Ming dynasty soldiers before them.
Tanggu Truce
On May 22, 1933, Chinese and Japanese representatives met at Tanggu, Tianjin, to negotiate an end of the conflict. The resulting Tanggu Truce created a demilitarized zone extending one hundred kilometers south of the Great Wall, which the Chinese army was prohibited from entering, thus greatly reducing the territorial security of China proper, whereas the Japanese were permitted to use reconnaissance aircraft or ground units to make sure that the Chinese complied. Furthermore, the Chinese government was forced to acknowledge the de facto independence of Manchukuo and the loss of Rehe.
That the terms of the truce were so favorable to Japan and unfavorable to China created a public backlash against the Kuomingtang government and greatly influenced Zhang Xueliang's later determination to kidnap Chiang Kai-shek in the Xi'an Incident to form a united front with the Communists against Japan.
Aftermath
The Great Wall was the site of one of the final battles of the war, some 12 years later. On 30 August 1945 after the Japanese surrender, a minor "mopping up" battle lasting for 3 hours was fought in the Shanghaiguan region between Chinese forces and 3000 Japanese soldiers refusing orders to surrender. Chinese forces commanded by Zeng Kelin backed with Soviet Red Army artillery annihilated the Japanese holdouts.
Popular culture
*An action movie was made in Hong Kong in called 7 Man Army about seven Chinese soldiers who managed to hold off against 20,000 Japanese soldiers for 5 days.
Topographic maps
* SW Jehol Province, SE Chahar Province, NW Hebei Province
* S Jehol Province, NE Hebei Province, Great Wall to Shanhaikuan upper Luan River area
* NE Hebei Luan River area
Great Wall of China hoax
The Great Wall of China hoax was a faked story, published in newspapers on June 25, 1899, about bids by American businesses to demolish the Great Wall of China and construct a road in its place.
In 1939, an urban legend began when Denver songwriter Harry Lee Wilber claimed in a magazine article that the 1899 hoax had ignited the Boxer Rebellion of 1900. Paul Harvey and other sources perpetuated the legend. Variations have been incorporated into sermons about "the power of the tongue," a morality tale used by preachers to highlight the consequences of lying.
The fact, however, is that Boxer activity intensified in response to the German invasion in Shandong during March 1899 — before the hoax was invented in Denver. No Chinese history reference relates the hoax to the Boxer Rebellion.
The hoax was created at the height of imperialism during late 19th Century. In 1898, obtained a 99-year lease for the New Territories, extending the Hong Kong colony it had been ceded in 1841. Britain also sent a fleet into the and convinced the Chinese into leasing Weihaiwei. Germany seized the Chinese port of and used it for a military base. The took the coastal city of Kwang-Chou-Wan. Also, in the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan defeated China.
Xenophobia in China was widespread.
The hoax began with four Denver newspaper reporters, Sam Chesher, Jack Tournay, John Lewis and Hal Wilshire, who represented the four Denver newspapers--the ''Post'', the ''Republican'', the ''Times'' and the ''Rocky Mountain News''. The four met by chance at Denver's Union Station where each were waiting in hopes of spotting someone of prominence who could become a subject for a news story. Seeing no celebrities and frustrated with no story in sight and deadlines due, Stevens remarked, "I don't know what you guys are going to do, but I'm going to fake it. It won't hurt anybody, so what the Devil." The other three men agreed to concoct a story and walked on 17th Street toward the Oxford Hotel to discuss possible ideas.
Some stories, such as New York detectives tracking kidnappers of a rich heiress or the creation of a powerful company that would compete with the equally powerful Colorado Fuel and Iron Company were ruled out, as stories set in the United States were more likely to be checked and verified. The reporters then began running through countries such as Germany, Russia and Japan until one of the reporters suggested China. John Lewis grew excited and exclaimed, "That's it, the Great Wall of China! Must be 50 years since that old pile's been in the news. Let's build our story around it. Let's do the Chinese a real favor. Let's tear the old pile down!"
The four reporters concocted a story in which the Chinese planned to demolish the Great Wall, constructing a road in its place, and were taking bids from American companies for the project. Chicago engineer Frank C. Lewis was bidding for the job. The story described a group of engineers in a Denver stopover on their way to China.
Although one of the reporters worried about the consequences of such an invented story, he was eventually overruled by the other reporters. Leaving the Oxford Bar, they went to the Windsor Hotel, signed four fictitious names to the register and told the desk clerk to say to anyone who asked that reporters had interviewed four men before they left for California.
The reporters swore they would stick to this story as fact as long as any of the others were still alive. The next day, all four major Denver newspapers, the ''Times'', ''Post'', ''Republican'' and ''Rocky Mountain News'' featured the fabricated tale on the front page. On the ''Times'', as well as the other three papers, this was a typical headline:
:GREAT CHINESE WALL DOOMED! PEKING SEEKS WORLD TRADE!
Although the Denver papers dropped the story after a few days, the story did not die. Two weeks after the Denver headlines, John Lewis had noticed a large Eastern U.S. newspaper had picked up the story, and included information not even in the original story. This newspaper included quotes from a Chinese confirming the story, with illustrations and comments about the tearing down of the wall. Eventually the story spread to newspapers all across the country and then into Europe. Although the story underwent different versions, the essence remained: the United States was sending an expedition to tear down the Great Wall of China.
Years later, the last surviving reporter of the hoax, Hal Wilshire, confessed the secret.
The states that the Boxer Rebellion connection originated with Denver songwriter Harry Lee Wilber . Wilber embellished the original tale when he wrote an article in 1939 for the ''North American Review''. Wilber's article, "A Fake That Rocked the World," was reprinted 17 years later in ''Great Hoaxes of All Time'' , edited by Robert Medill McBride and Neil Pritchie. Wilber, who composed the music for "Back to Dear Old Denver Town" , was the first manager of the Fox Fullerton Theater after it was constructed in 1924-25. The legend was also told in ''More of Paul Harvey's The Rest of the Story'' .
There is no relevant Chinese source to prove the authenticity of Wilber's account.
In 1939, an urban legend began when Denver songwriter Harry Lee Wilber claimed in a magazine article that the 1899 hoax had ignited the Boxer Rebellion of 1900. Paul Harvey and other sources perpetuated the legend. Variations have been incorporated into sermons about "the power of the tongue," a morality tale used by preachers to highlight the consequences of lying.
The fact, however, is that Boxer activity intensified in response to the German invasion in Shandong during March 1899 — before the hoax was invented in Denver. No Chinese history reference relates the hoax to the Boxer Rebellion.
Origin of the hoax
Background
The hoax was created at the height of imperialism during late 19th Century. In 1898, obtained a 99-year lease for the New Territories, extending the Hong Kong colony it had been ceded in 1841. Britain also sent a fleet into the and convinced the Chinese into leasing Weihaiwei. Germany seized the Chinese port of and used it for a military base. The took the coastal city of Kwang-Chou-Wan. Also, in the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan defeated China.
Xenophobia in China was widespread.
Beginning
The hoax began with four Denver newspaper reporters, Sam Chesher, Jack Tournay, John Lewis and Hal Wilshire, who represented the four Denver newspapers--the ''Post'', the ''Republican'', the ''Times'' and the ''Rocky Mountain News''. The four met by chance at Denver's Union Station where each were waiting in hopes of spotting someone of prominence who could become a subject for a news story. Seeing no celebrities and frustrated with no story in sight and deadlines due, Stevens remarked, "I don't know what you guys are going to do, but I'm going to fake it. It won't hurt anybody, so what the Devil." The other three men agreed to concoct a story and walked on 17th Street toward the Oxford Hotel to discuss possible ideas.
Some stories, such as New York detectives tracking kidnappers of a rich heiress or the creation of a powerful company that would compete with the equally powerful Colorado Fuel and Iron Company were ruled out, as stories set in the United States were more likely to be checked and verified. The reporters then began running through countries such as Germany, Russia and Japan until one of the reporters suggested China. John Lewis grew excited and exclaimed, "That's it, the Great Wall of China! Must be 50 years since that old pile's been in the news. Let's build our story around it. Let's do the Chinese a real favor. Let's tear the old pile down!"
The four reporters concocted a story in which the Chinese planned to demolish the Great Wall, constructing a road in its place, and were taking bids from American companies for the project. Chicago engineer Frank C. Lewis was bidding for the job. The story described a group of engineers in a Denver stopover on their way to China.
Although one of the reporters worried about the consequences of such an invented story, he was eventually overruled by the other reporters. Leaving the Oxford Bar, they went to the Windsor Hotel, signed four fictitious names to the register and told the desk clerk to say to anyone who asked that reporters had interviewed four men before they left for California.
The reporters swore they would stick to this story as fact as long as any of the others were still alive. The next day, all four major Denver newspapers, the ''Times'', ''Post'', ''Republican'' and ''Rocky Mountain News'' featured the fabricated tale on the front page. On the ''Times'', as well as the other three papers, this was a typical headline:
:GREAT CHINESE WALL DOOMED! PEKING SEEKS WORLD TRADE!
Proliferation
Although the Denver papers dropped the story after a few days, the story did not die. Two weeks after the Denver headlines, John Lewis had noticed a large Eastern U.S. newspaper had picked up the story, and included information not even in the original story. This newspaper included quotes from a Chinese confirming the story, with illustrations and comments about the tearing down of the wall. Eventually the story spread to newspapers all across the country and then into Europe. Although the story underwent different versions, the essence remained: the United States was sending an expedition to tear down the Great Wall of China.
Years later, the last surviving reporter of the hoax, Hal Wilshire, confessed the secret.
Harry Lee Wilber's hoax
The states that the Boxer Rebellion connection originated with Denver songwriter Harry Lee Wilber . Wilber embellished the original tale when he wrote an article in 1939 for the ''North American Review''. Wilber's article, "A Fake That Rocked the World," was reprinted 17 years later in ''Great Hoaxes of All Time'' , edited by Robert Medill McBride and Neil Pritchie. Wilber, who composed the music for "Back to Dear Old Denver Town" , was the first manager of the Fox Fullerton Theater after it was constructed in 1924-25. The legend was also told in ''More of Paul Harvey's The Rest of the Story'' .
There is no relevant Chinese source to prove the authenticity of Wilber's account.
David Spindler
David Spindler is an independent American scholar of the Great Wall of China and is one of its leading researchers. He was recently profiled in an article in ''The New Yorker''.
David has spent the last nine years researching the Great Wall. He attended Dartmouth College and Harvard Law School, and spent two years as a consultant at McKinsey & Company.
David Spindler is also a deviant retired golf caddie in the United States. He toured with the nationwide tour in 2004-2005 as a caddie. He is originally from Australia and NOT the same David Spindler as the Great Wall of China Scholar from America.
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David has spent the last nine years researching the Great Wall. He attended Dartmouth College and Harvard Law School, and spent two years as a consultant at McKinsey & Company.
David Spindler is also a deviant retired golf caddie in the United States. He toured with the nationwide tour in 2004-2005 as a caddie. He is originally from Australia and NOT the same David Spindler as the Great Wall of China Scholar from America.
Sources
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Commune by the Great Wall
The Commune by the Great Wall is a private collection of modern architecture in Beijing, China. It was exhibited at La Biennale di Venezia in 2002 and bestowed a special prize. Ms Zhang Xin, the mastermind and investor for the project, was recognized for her “bold personal initiative which emphasizes the role of 12 Asian architects in building privately-owned houses in a definitively contemporary manner.” The Centre Pompidou, Paris now houses the exhibited model, made of wood and cardboard, as its first permanent collection from China.
The Commune by the Great Wall is near the Badaling section of the Great Wall. Badaling is one of Beijing's biggest tourist destinations. The Commune consists of private villas designed by 12 of Asia’s best known architects. This project's grand vision of is to encourage creativity that will influence a whole new generation of Asian architects, developers and consumers. At the Shuiguan section of the Great Wall- the Commune shares the tranquility of the mountains with a Unesco World Heritage Site. The Commune's clubhouse and 11 villas, which each have a living room, dining room, kitchen, bedrooms and bathrooms are nestled in a valley totaling eight square kilometers. Some of its luxurious villas have sauna rooms, accessible rooftops, terraces or BBQ facilities. Not only does the Commune by the Great Wall provide comfortable accommodation and delicious food, but it is also a wonderful place for meetings, events, weddings, film shoots and fashion shows.
The Commune has furniture and other interior decorations from such distinguished designers as Serge Mouille, Thierry Hoppe, Von Robinson, Philippe Starck, Alex Strub, Claudio Colucci, Ross Menuez, Kaname Okajima, Jonas Damon, Karim Rashid, Matthew Hilton, Marc Newson, and Michael Young.
The Commune by the Great Wall is near the Badaling section of the Great Wall. Badaling is one of Beijing's biggest tourist destinations. The Commune consists of private villas designed by 12 of Asia’s best known architects. This project's grand vision of is to encourage creativity that will influence a whole new generation of Asian architects, developers and consumers. At the Shuiguan section of the Great Wall- the Commune shares the tranquility of the mountains with a Unesco World Heritage Site. The Commune's clubhouse and 11 villas, which each have a living room, dining room, kitchen, bedrooms and bathrooms are nestled in a valley totaling eight square kilometers. Some of its luxurious villas have sauna rooms, accessible rooftops, terraces or BBQ facilities. Not only does the Commune by the Great Wall provide comfortable accommodation and delicious food, but it is also a wonderful place for meetings, events, weddings, film shoots and fashion shows.
The Commune has furniture and other interior decorations from such distinguished designers as Serge Mouille, Thierry Hoppe, Von Robinson, Philippe Starck, Alex Strub, Claudio Colucci, Ross Menuez, Kaname Okajima, Jonas Damon, Karim Rashid, Matthew Hilton, Marc Newson, and Michael Young.
Battle of Shanhai Pass
The Battle of Shanhai Pass , fought in Shanhaiguan, China in 1644, was the decisive battle leading to the formation of the Qing Dynasty in China. Qing leader Dorgon, along with former general Wu Sangui, defeated rebel Li Zicheng's forces, allowing Dorgon and the Qing to rapidly conquer Beijing and replace the Ming Dynasty.
As the Ming Dynasty faltered and the Qing threat grew, Ming emperors saw the strategic values of Shanhaiguan, and frequently massed troops at the pass, sometimes reaching to the staggering number of 130,000 to 150,000 men. The Manchus attacked Shanhaiguan frequently, but to no avail.
In 1643, Manchu Emperor Hong Taiji died suddenly, leaving behind a six year-old son. His uncle Dorgon took power, and upon seeing the Ming Dynasty in shambles, personally led the Manchu & Mongol armies of the Eight Flags, consisting of around 60,000 men, to begin the conquest of Ming Dynasty on April 9, 1644. On April 11, upon hearing of Li Zicheng's conquest of Beijing and his overthrow of Ming, Dorgon decided to take the route north of Shanhaiguan.
During this time, the commander of the Shanhaiguan garrison, Wu Sangui, received an emergency summons from the Emperor concerning the desperate situation in Beijing. He began to march back towards Beijing with his 40,000 men, but stopped halfway once he learned of the news that Beijing had fallen. Wu then turned back to Shanhaiguan.
Li knew that Wu was a threat, and sent former Ming general Tang Tung with 8,000 men and several tens of thousands of silver taels to Shanhaiguan to entice Wu to surrender. Wu agreed, handed Shanhaiguan to Tang, and began to march towards Beijing to see Li. Halfway during the march, Wu learned from his family members that his father, , was beaten by Li's forces, and his concubine Chen Yuanyuan was taken by Li's general Liu Zhongwen.
Enraged, Wu turned back to Shanhaiguan and defeated Tang in a surprise attack, killing almost all of Tang's forces. Li then sent another general Bai Guangun to attack Shanhaiguan, but met defeat. On April 13, Li decided to attack Shanhaiguan personally with 50,000 men. Knowing that he could not withstand Li's forces, Wu contacted Dorgon, requesting emergency assistance from the Manchus on April 19. On April 20, Dorgon received the message and immediately swung more than 60,000 men down to Shanhaiguan, reaching the Pass at dawn of April 21.
Li arrived at Shanhaiguan on April 19, and immediately issued a demand for unconditional surrender from Wu. Li also forced Wu's father, , to call for his son to surrender. Wu refused, and Li immediately set his plans to action. Using Tang Tung's 20,000 men to move up around the Pass to the left side, Li was able to have men at Shanhaiguan's north, west and east gates. Li's forces continued its relentless assaults, and soon the Stone River defense line was breached. Wu's forces used catapults to beat back the assault upon the gates. Meanwhile, Li's forces on the north used height as their advantage, inflicting numerous casualties.
At the dawn of the second day of the battle, a part of Wu's forces were forced to surrender. At this time Dorgon's forces arrived 15 kilometers, and eventually reached a town merely 1 kilometer from the Pass. During its way, the Qing forces were able to crush Tang's 20,000 men, creating a gap in Li's left flank. Nevertheless, the situation in the Pass was fast becoming dire for Wu, and Dorgon and the various Manchu princes did not dare to enter the Pass, but decided to observe the situation from Weiyuan City. Wu hurriedly sneaked out of the Pass that night, and met with Dorgon, offering to shave his head to signal his willingness to become a Manchu officer. Dorgon decided to aid Wu. On dawn, April 22, both Li and Wu unleashed their full forces upon each other. During a crucial period, Dorgon, upon Wu's signal, sent 60,000 men through the wide-open gates of Shanhaiguan upon Li's surprised and exhausted forces. Routed, Li killed Wu's father and fled west to Beijing.
In 12 o‘clock, blow a strong Tornado, Li troops lose in battleground, this Tornado help Qing in time and changed aftermath,
Qing and Wu's forces continued to pursue Li with vigor, and soon reached the smoking city of Beijing. Li Zicheng had crowned himself Emperor on April 29, but retreated from the city of April 30. Manchu forces entered Beijing successfully, and began its reign as the Qing, what was to be the last imperial dynasty of China.
Prelude
As the Ming Dynasty faltered and the Qing threat grew, Ming emperors saw the strategic values of Shanhaiguan, and frequently massed troops at the pass, sometimes reaching to the staggering number of 130,000 to 150,000 men. The Manchus attacked Shanhaiguan frequently, but to no avail.
In 1643, Manchu Emperor Hong Taiji died suddenly, leaving behind a six year-old son. His uncle Dorgon took power, and upon seeing the Ming Dynasty in shambles, personally led the Manchu & Mongol armies of the Eight Flags, consisting of around 60,000 men, to begin the conquest of Ming Dynasty on April 9, 1644. On April 11, upon hearing of Li Zicheng's conquest of Beijing and his overthrow of Ming, Dorgon decided to take the route north of Shanhaiguan.
During this time, the commander of the Shanhaiguan garrison, Wu Sangui, received an emergency summons from the Emperor concerning the desperate situation in Beijing. He began to march back towards Beijing with his 40,000 men, but stopped halfway once he learned of the news that Beijing had fallen. Wu then turned back to Shanhaiguan.
Li knew that Wu was a threat, and sent former Ming general Tang Tung with 8,000 men and several tens of thousands of silver taels to Shanhaiguan to entice Wu to surrender. Wu agreed, handed Shanhaiguan to Tang, and began to march towards Beijing to see Li. Halfway during the march, Wu learned from his family members that his father, , was beaten by Li's forces, and his concubine Chen Yuanyuan was taken by Li's general Liu Zhongwen.
Enraged, Wu turned back to Shanhaiguan and defeated Tang in a surprise attack, killing almost all of Tang's forces. Li then sent another general Bai Guangun to attack Shanhaiguan, but met defeat. On April 13, Li decided to attack Shanhaiguan personally with 50,000 men. Knowing that he could not withstand Li's forces, Wu contacted Dorgon, requesting emergency assistance from the Manchus on April 19. On April 20, Dorgon received the message and immediately swung more than 60,000 men down to Shanhaiguan, reaching the Pass at dawn of April 21.
Battle
Li arrived at Shanhaiguan on April 19, and immediately issued a demand for unconditional surrender from Wu. Li also forced Wu's father, , to call for his son to surrender. Wu refused, and Li immediately set his plans to action. Using Tang Tung's 20,000 men to move up around the Pass to the left side, Li was able to have men at Shanhaiguan's north, west and east gates. Li's forces continued its relentless assaults, and soon the Stone River defense line was breached. Wu's forces used catapults to beat back the assault upon the gates. Meanwhile, Li's forces on the north used height as their advantage, inflicting numerous casualties.
At the dawn of the second day of the battle, a part of Wu's forces were forced to surrender. At this time Dorgon's forces arrived 15 kilometers, and eventually reached a town merely 1 kilometer from the Pass. During its way, the Qing forces were able to crush Tang's 20,000 men, creating a gap in Li's left flank. Nevertheless, the situation in the Pass was fast becoming dire for Wu, and Dorgon and the various Manchu princes did not dare to enter the Pass, but decided to observe the situation from Weiyuan City. Wu hurriedly sneaked out of the Pass that night, and met with Dorgon, offering to shave his head to signal his willingness to become a Manchu officer. Dorgon decided to aid Wu. On dawn, April 22, both Li and Wu unleashed their full forces upon each other. During a crucial period, Dorgon, upon Wu's signal, sent 60,000 men through the wide-open gates of Shanhaiguan upon Li's surprised and exhausted forces. Routed, Li killed Wu's father and fled west to Beijing.
Aftermath
Magical Tornado:Qing victory!
In 12 o‘clock, blow a strong Tornado, Li troops lose in battleground, this Tornado help Qing in time and changed aftermath,
Qing and Wu's forces continued to pursue Li with vigor, and soon reached the smoking city of Beijing. Li Zicheng had crowned himself Emperor on April 29, but retreated from the city of April 30. Manchu forces entered Beijing successfully, and began its reign as the Qing, what was to be the last imperial dynasty of China.
Citations
Battle of Pingxingguan
The Battle of Pingxingguan, commonly called the "Great Victory of Pingxingguan" in Mainland China, was an engagement fought between the 8th Route Army of the Communist Party of China and the Imperial Japanese Army on September 25, 1937. It resulted in a minor, morale-boosting victory in which 8th Route Army was able to capture a cache of weapons and annihilate a Japanese brigade.
After the capture of Beiping at the end of July, Japanese forces advanced along the Beiping-Suiyuan railway line to Inner Mongolia. Having anticipated the move, Chiang Kai-shek had appointed the Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan as Pacification Director of Taiyuan. Theoretically Yan had authority over all the Chinese military forces in his theatre of operations, including Lin Biao's 115th Division of the Communist 8th Route Army, Liu Ruming's ex-Kuomingtang troops and various Central Army contingents responsible to Chiang Kai-shek. In reality these forces operated independently from Yan's provincial army.
Japanese forces, mainly the 5th Division and 11th Independent Mixed Brigade, moved out from Beiping and advanced on Huaili, in . A Japanese column advanced quickly into Shanxi, making use of the railway which the Chinese did not attempt to destroy. The Chinese abandoned Datong on September 13, falling back to a line from Yanmenguan on the east to the mountain pass of Pingxingguan. Yan Xishan's troops became more demoralised as the Japanese exerted their air supremacy.
The main body of the Japanese 5th Division, under the command of Itagaki Seishiro, advanced from Huaili to invade northeastern Shanxi. Although it had a motorised transport column, its rate of advance was limited by the poor roads. By the time they reached the Shanxi border, Lin Biao's 115th Division, after a forced march from Shaanxi, was in place at Pingxingguan on September 24 to attack the unawares Japanese army.
Order of Battle Battle of Pingxingguan
The pass of Pingxingguan was a narrow worn through the loess, with no exit for several kilometres except the road itself. Lin's division were able to ambush two columns of mainly transportation and supply units and virtually annihilate the trapped Japanese forces.
On September 25, the 21st brigade of the Japanese 5th Division stationed at LingQiu received a request from the 21st Regiment that they urgently needed supplies due to falling temperature. The supply troops of the 21st Regiment set out with 70 horse-drawn vehicles with 50 horses, filled with clothes, food, ammunition and proceeded westwards towards Pingxingguan. Around 10 a.m., the supply column passed into a defile with the two sides rising up more than 10 meters; they were heading towards Cai Jia Yu about 3 km away. At the same time, a motorized column of Japanese supply troops in about 80 trucks left Guan Gou and headed east. Both of these non-combat formations entered into the ambush set by the 115th division after 10 a.m. on the 25th and were largely wiped out. A relief force consisting of the 3rd Battalion of the 21st Regiment was rebuffed by Chinese troops and suffered almost 100 casualties. Lin Biao's troops eventually withdrew from the battlefield, allowing the Japanese to finally reach the site of the ambush on September 28.
When it was over about 500-600 Japanese were killed and captured at cost of roughly an equal number of Chinese casualties. The battle yielded some 100 trucks loaded with supplies, about 100 rifles, and ammunition and clothing for the Chinese.
The Kuomingtang official history of the Second Sino-Japanese War deals with it in a sentence, without any credit to the communists. Communist accounts, on the other hand, describe Pingxingguan as a typical example of ''Red'' , inspired by Mao Zedong's conceptualisation of ''People's war''. Japanese losses were greatly exaggerated for propaganda purposes. However, like the victory at the Battle of Taierzhuang, Pingxingguan was explained by Japan as Japanese officers succumbing to what they came to call "victory disease". After a series of easy victories against their opponents, they failed to take elementary precautions. Japanese commanders seldom repeated the operational blunders that had led to Pingxingguan. Nonetheless, the battle gave the Chinese a major boost in morale and credence to the Communists in the eyes of the people. The battle was constantly cited by CPC brass as an example of their commitment to battling the Japanese occupation.
Background
After the capture of Beiping at the end of July, Japanese forces advanced along the Beiping-Suiyuan railway line to Inner Mongolia. Having anticipated the move, Chiang Kai-shek had appointed the Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan as Pacification Director of Taiyuan. Theoretically Yan had authority over all the Chinese military forces in his theatre of operations, including Lin Biao's 115th Division of the Communist 8th Route Army, Liu Ruming's ex-Kuomingtang troops and various Central Army contingents responsible to Chiang Kai-shek. In reality these forces operated independently from Yan's provincial army.
Japanese forces, mainly the 5th Division and 11th Independent Mixed Brigade, moved out from Beiping and advanced on Huaili, in . A Japanese column advanced quickly into Shanxi, making use of the railway which the Chinese did not attempt to destroy. The Chinese abandoned Datong on September 13, falling back to a line from Yanmenguan on the east to the mountain pass of Pingxingguan. Yan Xishan's troops became more demoralised as the Japanese exerted their air supremacy.
The main body of the Japanese 5th Division, under the command of Itagaki Seishiro, advanced from Huaili to invade northeastern Shanxi. Although it had a motorised transport column, its rate of advance was limited by the poor roads. By the time they reached the Shanxi border, Lin Biao's 115th Division, after a forced march from Shaanxi, was in place at Pingxingguan on September 24 to attack the unawares Japanese army.
Order of Battle Battle of Pingxingguan
The battle
The pass of Pingxingguan was a narrow worn through the loess, with no exit for several kilometres except the road itself. Lin's division were able to ambush two columns of mainly transportation and supply units and virtually annihilate the trapped Japanese forces.
On September 25, the 21st brigade of the Japanese 5th Division stationed at LingQiu received a request from the 21st Regiment that they urgently needed supplies due to falling temperature. The supply troops of the 21st Regiment set out with 70 horse-drawn vehicles with 50 horses, filled with clothes, food, ammunition and proceeded westwards towards Pingxingguan. Around 10 a.m., the supply column passed into a defile with the two sides rising up more than 10 meters; they were heading towards Cai Jia Yu about 3 km away. At the same time, a motorized column of Japanese supply troops in about 80 trucks left Guan Gou and headed east. Both of these non-combat formations entered into the ambush set by the 115th division after 10 a.m. on the 25th and were largely wiped out. A relief force consisting of the 3rd Battalion of the 21st Regiment was rebuffed by Chinese troops and suffered almost 100 casualties. Lin Biao's troops eventually withdrew from the battlefield, allowing the Japanese to finally reach the site of the ambush on September 28.
When it was over about 500-600 Japanese were killed and captured at cost of roughly an equal number of Chinese casualties. The battle yielded some 100 trucks loaded with supplies, about 100 rifles, and ammunition and clothing for the Chinese.
Evaluation
The Kuomingtang official history of the Second Sino-Japanese War deals with it in a sentence, without any credit to the communists. Communist accounts, on the other hand, describe Pingxingguan as a typical example of ''Red'' , inspired by Mao Zedong's conceptualisation of ''People's war''. Japanese losses were greatly exaggerated for propaganda purposes. However, like the victory at the Battle of Taierzhuang, Pingxingguan was explained by Japan as Japanese officers succumbing to what they came to call "victory disease". After a series of easy victories against their opponents, they failed to take elementary precautions. Japanese commanders seldom repeated the operational blunders that had led to Pingxingguan. Nonetheless, the battle gave the Chinese a major boost in morale and credence to the Communists in the eyes of the people. The battle was constantly cited by CPC brass as an example of their commitment to battling the Japanese occupation.
Badaling
Badaling is the site of the most visited section of the Great Wall of China, approximately 50 miles northwest of Beijing city in Yanqing County, which is within the Beijing . The portion of the wall running through the site was built during the Ming Dynasty, along with a military outpost reflecting the location's strategic importance.
The portion of the wall at Badaling has undergone heavy restoration, and in 1957 it was the first section of the wall to open to tourists. Now visited annually by millions, the immediate area has seen significant development, including hotels, restaurants, and a cable car. The recently completed Badaling Expressway connects Badaling with Beijing city.
It was here that President Richard Nixon and his wife, accompanied by Vice Premier Lǐ Xiānniàn, visited on February 24, 1972, during to China.
Badaling and the expressway were the site of the finishing circuit of the Urban Road Cycling Course in the 2008 Summer Olympics. Laps of the circuit passed through gates in the wall.
The portion of the wall at Badaling has undergone heavy restoration, and in 1957 it was the first section of the wall to open to tourists. Now visited annually by millions, the immediate area has seen significant development, including hotels, restaurants, and a cable car. The recently completed Badaling Expressway connects Badaling with Beijing city.
It was here that President Richard Nixon and his wife, accompanied by Vice Premier Lǐ Xiānniàn, visited on February 24, 1972, during to China.
Badaling and the expressway were the site of the finishing circuit of the Urban Road Cycling Course in the 2008 Summer Olympics. Laps of the circuit passed through gates in the wall.
Tumu Crisis
The Tumu Crisis ; also called Crisis of Tumubao ; or Battle of Tumu , was a frontier conflict between Mongolia and the Ming Dynasty which led to the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor on September 8 1449. This outcome was largely due to the Chinese army's remarkably bad deployment. The Ming expedition is regarded as the greatest military debacle of the dynasty.
In July 1449 Esen Tayisi of the Mongols launched a large-scale three-pronged invasion of China. He personally advanced on Datong in August. The eunuch official , who dominated the Ming court, encouraged the twenty-two year old Zhengtong Emperor to lead his own armies into battle against Esen. Esen's raiding army in size is unknown but a best guess puts it at some 20,000 men. The Ming army of about 50,000 men was hastily assembled. Its command was made up of twenty experienced generals and a large entourage of high-ranking civil officials, with Wang Zhen acting as field marshal.
On August 3, Esen's army crushed a badly supplied Chinese army at Yanghe, just inside the . The same day the Emperor appointed his half-brother Zhu Qiyu as regent. The next day he left Beijing for . The objective was a short, sharp march west to Datong via the Xuanfu garrison, a campaign into the steppe, and then to return to Beijing by a southerly route through Yuzhou.
Initially the march was mired by heavy rain. At Juyong Pass, the civil officials and generals wished to halt and send the emperor back to Beijing, but their opinions were overruled by Wang Zhen. On August 16, the army came upon the corpse-strewn battlefield of Yanghe. When it reached Datong on August 18, reports from garrison commanders persuaded Wang Zhen that a campaign into the steppe would be too dangerous. The "expedition" was declared to have reached a victorious conclusion and on August 20 the army set out back toward China proper.
Fearing that the restless soldiers would cause damages to his estates in Yuzhou, Wang Zhen took the decision to strike northeast and return by the same exposed route as they had come. The army reached Xianfu on August 27. On August 30, the Mongols attacked the rearguard east of Xianfu and wiped it out. Soon afterwards, they also annihilated a powerful new rearguard of cavalry led by the elderly general Zhu Yong at Yaoerling. On August 31 the imperial army camped at the post station of Tumu. Wang Zhen refused his ministers' suggestion to have the emperor take refuge in the walled city of Huailai, just 45 km ahead.
Esen sent an advance force to cut off access to water from a river south of the Chinese camp. By the morning of September 1, they had surrounded the Chinese army. Wang Zhen rejected any offers to negotiate and ordered the confused army to move toward the river. A battle ensued between the chaotic Chinese army and the advance guard of Esen's army . The Chinese army lost all organization and was almost annihilated. The Mongols captured a huge quantity of arms and armour while killing most of the Chinese soldiers. All the high-ranking Chinese generals and court officials were killed. According to some accounts, Wang Zhen was killed by his own officers. The Emperor was captured, and on September 3 was sent to Esen's main camp near Xianfu.
The entire expedition had been unnecessary, ill-conceived, and poorly commanded. The Mongol victory was won by an advance guard of perhaps as few as 5,000 cavalry. Esen, for his part, was not prepared for the scale of his victory or for the capture of the Ming Emperor.
At first, Esen attempted to use the captured emperor to raise a ransom and planned to conquer the undefended Ming capital of Beijing. However his plan was foiled, due to steadfast leadership of the Ming commander in the capital, Yu Qian. The Ming leaders rejected Esen's offer, Yu stated the country was more important than an emperor's life.
The Ming never paid a ransom for the return of the Emperor . Esen himself faced growing criticism for his failure to exploit his victory over the Ming and he was six years after the battle in 1455.
Although the Mongols later occupied the Ordos desert, they never again seriously threatened the Ming state.
In July 1449 Esen Tayisi of the Mongols launched a large-scale three-pronged invasion of China. He personally advanced on Datong in August. The eunuch official , who dominated the Ming court, encouraged the twenty-two year old Zhengtong Emperor to lead his own armies into battle against Esen. Esen's raiding army in size is unknown but a best guess puts it at some 20,000 men. The Ming army of about 50,000 men was hastily assembled. Its command was made up of twenty experienced generals and a large entourage of high-ranking civil officials, with Wang Zhen acting as field marshal.
On August 3, Esen's army crushed a badly supplied Chinese army at Yanghe, just inside the . The same day the Emperor appointed his half-brother Zhu Qiyu as regent. The next day he left Beijing for . The objective was a short, sharp march west to Datong via the Xuanfu garrison, a campaign into the steppe, and then to return to Beijing by a southerly route through Yuzhou.
Initially the march was mired by heavy rain. At Juyong Pass, the civil officials and generals wished to halt and send the emperor back to Beijing, but their opinions were overruled by Wang Zhen. On August 16, the army came upon the corpse-strewn battlefield of Yanghe. When it reached Datong on August 18, reports from garrison commanders persuaded Wang Zhen that a campaign into the steppe would be too dangerous. The "expedition" was declared to have reached a victorious conclusion and on August 20 the army set out back toward China proper.
Fearing that the restless soldiers would cause damages to his estates in Yuzhou, Wang Zhen took the decision to strike northeast and return by the same exposed route as they had come. The army reached Xianfu on August 27. On August 30, the Mongols attacked the rearguard east of Xianfu and wiped it out. Soon afterwards, they also annihilated a powerful new rearguard of cavalry led by the elderly general Zhu Yong at Yaoerling. On August 31 the imperial army camped at the post station of Tumu. Wang Zhen refused his ministers' suggestion to have the emperor take refuge in the walled city of Huailai, just 45 km ahead.
Esen sent an advance force to cut off access to water from a river south of the Chinese camp. By the morning of September 1, they had surrounded the Chinese army. Wang Zhen rejected any offers to negotiate and ordered the confused army to move toward the river. A battle ensued between the chaotic Chinese army and the advance guard of Esen's army . The Chinese army lost all organization and was almost annihilated. The Mongols captured a huge quantity of arms and armour while killing most of the Chinese soldiers. All the high-ranking Chinese generals and court officials were killed. According to some accounts, Wang Zhen was killed by his own officers. The Emperor was captured, and on September 3 was sent to Esen's main camp near Xianfu.
The entire expedition had been unnecessary, ill-conceived, and poorly commanded. The Mongol victory was won by an advance guard of perhaps as few as 5,000 cavalry. Esen, for his part, was not prepared for the scale of his victory or for the capture of the Ming Emperor.
At first, Esen attempted to use the captured emperor to raise a ransom and planned to conquer the undefended Ming capital of Beijing. However his plan was foiled, due to steadfast leadership of the Ming commander in the capital, Yu Qian. The Ming leaders rejected Esen's offer, Yu stated the country was more important than an emperor's life.
The Ming never paid a ransom for the return of the Emperor . Esen himself faced growing criticism for his failure to exploit his victory over the Ming and he was six years after the battle in 1455.
Although the Mongols later occupied the Ordos desert, they never again seriously threatened the Ming state.
Simatai
Simatai, a section of the Great Wall of China located in the north of Miyun County, 120 km northeast of Beijing, holds the access to Gubeikou, a strategic pass in the eastern part of the Great Wall. Originally built during the Northern Qi dynasty and rebuilt in the Hongwu years of the Ming dynasty by Qi Jiguang, this section of Great Wall is one of the few to retain the original features of the Ming dynasty Great Wall.
Simatai Great Wall is 5.4 km long with 35 beacon towers. This section of the Great Wall incorporated the different characteristics of each section of the Great Wall. A specialist on the Great Wall, Professor Luo Zhewen, has said "The Great Wall is the best of the Chinese buildings, and Simatai is the best of the Great Wall." UNESCO has designated Simatai Great Wall as one of the sites.
Hanging precariously onto the Yanshan Mountain, Simatai Great Wall is known for its steepness.
Simatai Great Wall is separated by a valley into eastern and western parts. The western part appears gentle with 20 well-preserved watchtowers dotting along the wall. The eastern part is much steeper, following more rugged terrain that includes cliff edges and kilometre-high peaks. The 15 watchtowers are relatively closely spaced and provide spectacular views. Main attractions in the eastern part include Watching Beijing Tower, Fairy Tower, Heavenly Ladder and Sky Bridge, though they are currently closed to the public for safety reasons.
*Heavenly Ladder: Climbing the mountainside at a steep 80-degree gradient, the Heavenly Ladder is the way to Watching Beijing Tower and the Fairy Maiden Tower. Stretching upward along the abrupt mountain ridges, the narrowest part is just half a meter wide.
*Watching Beijing Tower: At an elevation of 986 meters, it is regarded as the summit of the Simatai Great Wall as well as the highest cultural relic in Beijing. Its name comes from the fact that at night , one can see the lights of Beijing shimmering in the distance 120 km away. More interesting is that the bricks used to built the walls here even stamped with the date on which they were made and the code numbers of the armies that made them.
*Sky Bridge: As little as 40 centimeters wide in places, this 100-meter long segment of the wall connects the Fairy Tower to Watching Beijing Tower. It is said that only brave man can traverse the Sky Bridge.
*Fairy Tower: With a sculpture of twin lotus flowers above the arched doors, it is considered by many to be the most beautiful of all towers and is known for its architecture. Legend goes that it was the dwelling place for an antelope reincarnated in the form of an angel who fell in love with a shepherd.
*Open Air Gondolas provide a way to ascend part way up the wall.
*A popular hike is to traverse from JinShanLing to Simatai
Goats played an important role in building this section of the Great Wall on such precarious mountain ridge centuries ago, with each goat carrying a single brick to the top on each trip. Ironically, goats also played an equally important role in its dismay centuries later after its construction. Peasants residing near the site raised goats to generate extra income, and the goats eat the vegetation that protects the soil around the wall from erosion. In order to protect and recover the vegetation, the Chinese government banned the local population from raising goats, but peasants protested, claiming that the governmental compensation was not enough, and that they do not receive any benefits from the tourism. Many peasants also blame low compensation on corruption, a controversy that remains to this date. The ban did, however, greatly help the recovery of the local vegetation.
Simatai Great Wall is 5.4 km long with 35 beacon towers. This section of the Great Wall incorporated the different characteristics of each section of the Great Wall. A specialist on the Great Wall, Professor Luo Zhewen, has said "The Great Wall is the best of the Chinese buildings, and Simatai is the best of the Great Wall." UNESCO has designated Simatai Great Wall as one of the sites.
Hanging precariously onto the Yanshan Mountain, Simatai Great Wall is known for its steepness.
Simatai Great Wall is separated by a valley into eastern and western parts. The western part appears gentle with 20 well-preserved watchtowers dotting along the wall. The eastern part is much steeper, following more rugged terrain that includes cliff edges and kilometre-high peaks. The 15 watchtowers are relatively closely spaced and provide spectacular views. Main attractions in the eastern part include Watching Beijing Tower, Fairy Tower, Heavenly Ladder and Sky Bridge, though they are currently closed to the public for safety reasons.
*Heavenly Ladder: Climbing the mountainside at a steep 80-degree gradient, the Heavenly Ladder is the way to Watching Beijing Tower and the Fairy Maiden Tower. Stretching upward along the abrupt mountain ridges, the narrowest part is just half a meter wide.
*Watching Beijing Tower: At an elevation of 986 meters, it is regarded as the summit of the Simatai Great Wall as well as the highest cultural relic in Beijing. Its name comes from the fact that at night , one can see the lights of Beijing shimmering in the distance 120 km away. More interesting is that the bricks used to built the walls here even stamped with the date on which they were made and the code numbers of the armies that made them.
*Sky Bridge: As little as 40 centimeters wide in places, this 100-meter long segment of the wall connects the Fairy Tower to Watching Beijing Tower. It is said that only brave man can traverse the Sky Bridge.
*Fairy Tower: With a sculpture of twin lotus flowers above the arched doors, it is considered by many to be the most beautiful of all towers and is known for its architecture. Legend goes that it was the dwelling place for an antelope reincarnated in the form of an angel who fell in love with a shepherd.
*Open Air Gondolas provide a way to ascend part way up the wall.
*A popular hike is to traverse from JinShanLing to Simatai
Goats played an important role in building this section of the Great Wall on such precarious mountain ridge centuries ago, with each goat carrying a single brick to the top on each trip. Ironically, goats also played an equally important role in its dismay centuries later after its construction. Peasants residing near the site raised goats to generate extra income, and the goats eat the vegetation that protects the soil around the wall from erosion. In order to protect and recover the vegetation, the Chinese government banned the local population from raising goats, but peasants protested, claiming that the governmental compensation was not enough, and that they do not receive any benefits from the tourism. Many peasants also blame low compensation on corruption, a controversy that remains to this date. The ban did, however, greatly help the recovery of the local vegetation.
Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan or Shanhai Pass is a part of the city of Qinhuangdao, in Hebei province, People's Republic of China. In 1961, Shanhaiguan became a site of China First Class National Cultural Site. Along with and Juyongguan, it is one of the major passes of the Great Wall of China.
It is a popular tourist destination, featuring the eastern end of the Great Wall. The "First Pass Under Heaven" is also a noticeable tourist attraction. The place where the wall itself meets the Pacific Ocean has been nicknamed the "Old Dragon's Head."
It is nearly 300 km east of Beijing and linked via the Jingshen Expressway.
Throughout Chinese history, it served as a frontier of defence against tribes from Manchuria .
Shanhaiguan is located south of Yan Mountain, and north of Bohai. For centuries, the pass guarded the narrow passage between the Northeast and the Central East region of China. Both Northern Qi Dynasty and Tang Dynasty constructed passes. In 1381, Ming general Xu Da constructed Shanhaiguan, named due to its position between mountain and the sea.
Later Ming general Qi Jiguang began fortification and construction of a military city around Shanhaiguan, building cities and forts to the east, south and north of the pass. Shanhaiguan became one of the most heavily fortified pass in China, and to this day, it is also one of the best preserved passes in the Great Wall.
During the end of Ming Dynasty, Shanhaiguan general Wu Sangui was about to surrender and join the rebel forces of Li Zicheng when he heard that his concubine Chen Yuanyuan was taken by Li Zicheng. Enraged, he contacted the Qing and the leader Dorgon. Afterwards, Wu Sangui opened the gates of Shanhaiguan for Qing soldiers and together fought a against Li Zicheng. The victory by the Qing Dynasty hastened the foundering of Li Zicheng's political powers and firmly established Qing as the dominant power in China.
During the Qing Dynasty, Shanhaiguan, situated between Shenyang and Beijing, was referred to as the Key to the Capitals. Both during the , as well as Eight-Nation Alliance and Second World War, Shanhaiguan was the site of many conflicts.
The pass of Shanhaiguan is a square, with a perimeter of around 4 kilometers long. The walls reach a height of 14 meters, and are 7 meters thick. The east, south and north sides are surrounded by a deep, wide moat. There are drawbridges over the moat. In the middle of the pass stands a tall bell tower.
All four sides of Shanhaiguan had a gate: Zhendong , Ying'en , Wangyang , and Weiyuan . Due to disrepair over the centuries, only Zhendong gate still remains today. Zhendong Gate is the most important gate in Shanhaiguan due to its position, which faces outside the pass. Written on a board that hangs above the gate is an alternate name of Shanhai Pass, "First Pass Under the Heaven" . This should not be confused with the "" , a different pass located at the west end of the Great Wall.
It is a popular tourist destination, featuring the eastern end of the Great Wall. The "First Pass Under Heaven" is also a noticeable tourist attraction. The place where the wall itself meets the Pacific Ocean has been nicknamed the "Old Dragon's Head."
It is nearly 300 km east of Beijing and linked via the Jingshen Expressway.
History
Throughout Chinese history, it served as a frontier of defence against tribes from Manchuria .
Shanhaiguan is located south of Yan Mountain, and north of Bohai. For centuries, the pass guarded the narrow passage between the Northeast and the Central East region of China. Both Northern Qi Dynasty and Tang Dynasty constructed passes. In 1381, Ming general Xu Da constructed Shanhaiguan, named due to its position between mountain and the sea.
Later Ming general Qi Jiguang began fortification and construction of a military city around Shanhaiguan, building cities and forts to the east, south and north of the pass. Shanhaiguan became one of the most heavily fortified pass in China, and to this day, it is also one of the best preserved passes in the Great Wall.
During the end of Ming Dynasty, Shanhaiguan general Wu Sangui was about to surrender and join the rebel forces of Li Zicheng when he heard that his concubine Chen Yuanyuan was taken by Li Zicheng. Enraged, he contacted the Qing and the leader Dorgon. Afterwards, Wu Sangui opened the gates of Shanhaiguan for Qing soldiers and together fought a against Li Zicheng. The victory by the Qing Dynasty hastened the foundering of Li Zicheng's political powers and firmly established Qing as the dominant power in China.
During the Qing Dynasty, Shanhaiguan, situated between Shenyang and Beijing, was referred to as the Key to the Capitals. Both during the , as well as Eight-Nation Alliance and Second World War, Shanhaiguan was the site of many conflicts.
Structure
The pass of Shanhaiguan is a square, with a perimeter of around 4 kilometers long. The walls reach a height of 14 meters, and are 7 meters thick. The east, south and north sides are surrounded by a deep, wide moat. There are drawbridges over the moat. In the middle of the pass stands a tall bell tower.
All four sides of Shanhaiguan had a gate: Zhendong , Ying'en , Wangyang , and Weiyuan . Due to disrepair over the centuries, only Zhendong gate still remains today. Zhendong Gate is the most important gate in Shanhaiguan due to its position, which faces outside the pass. Written on a board that hangs above the gate is an alternate name of Shanhai Pass, "First Pass Under the Heaven" . This should not be confused with the "" , a different pass located at the west end of the Great Wall.
Pingxingguan Pass
Pingxingguan Pass is a mountain pass in the Shanxi Province of China.
There is a section of the Great Wall of China there.
The Battle of Pingxingguan was fought here between the National Revolutionary Army's 8th Route Army of the Republic of China and the Imperial Japanese Army on September 25, 1937.
A 6,188 metre long railway tunnel was opened through the pass in 1971.
There is a section of the Great Wall of China there.
The Battle of Pingxingguan was fought here between the National Revolutionary Army's 8th Route Army of the Republic of China and the Imperial Japanese Army on September 25, 1937.
A 6,188 metre long railway tunnel was opened through the pass in 1971.
Operation Chahar
Operation Chahar, known by the Japanese as チャハル作戦, Operation Quhar and by the Chinese as the 长城抗战 , this campaign occurred in August 1937 following the Battle of Beiping-Tianjin at the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
This was the second attack by Kwangtung Army and the Inner Mongolian Army of Prince on Inner Mongolia after the failure of the Suiyuan Campaign . The Chahar Expeditionary Force was under the direct command of General Hideki Tojo, the chief of staff of Kuangtung Army. A second force from the Peiping Railway Garrison Force, later the 1st Army under General Kiyoshi Katsuki was also involved.
See Order of battle of Operation Chahar.
The Chinese forces opposing this invasion of Suiyuan were the Suiyuan Pacification Headquarters under the command of General Yan Xishan. Fu Zuoyi governor of Suiyuan was made commander of the 7th Army Group and , governor of was made its deputy commander, defending Chahar with 143rd Division and two Brigades. General Tang Enbo was sent by Chiang Kai-shek with 13th and 17th Corps from the Central Army and made Frontline Commander in Chief. 1st Cavalry Corps was in Chahar under the command of Chiao Cheng-shou facing the Mongolian forces of .
See Order of battle Peiking – Suiyuan Railway Operation.
Following the loss of Peiking, Tang Enbo's 13th Corps took up positions in depth along the Peiking – Suiyuan Railway at Nankou and further to the rear at Juyongguan . His 17th Corps stationed its 84th Division at Chihcheng, Yenching and Lungkuan covering the flank of 13th Corps from Japanese forces in Chahar and its 21st Division at Huailai on the railroad to its rear was in reserve. Chiao Cheng-shou's 1st Cavalry Corps and Liu Ju-ming's 143rd Division and two Peace Preservation Brigades began an attack on the Mongol forces in northern Chahar.
On August 8th the Japanese 11th Independent Mixed Brigade, commanded by Gen. Shigiyasu Suzuki began their attack on the left flank of the 13th Corps position at Nankou but were thwarted after three days by the difficult terrain and stubborn resistance of the Chinese. A new attack on August 11th supported by tanks and aircraft took Nankou Station after which Gen. Suzuki's brigade advanced on Juyong Pass.
That same day, Chiang Kai-shek ordered the activation of the 14th Army Group under Gen. Wei Li-huang. Coming by rail from Yingchia-chuang to Yi Hsien, elements of it were sent on a ten day march through the plains west of Peiking in a turning movement in support of Tang Enbo's forces. The Chinese 1st Army made attacks on the Japanese forces in Lianghsiang and Chaili to distract them and sent a detachment to Heilung Pass to cover the advance of 14th Army Group. From the dates on a Japanese map of the battle these forces did not reach the area until September when it was too late and clashed with the Japanese forces from the 9th to the 17th to no avail.
On August 12th, Tang Enbo's army counterattacked surrounding the Japanese cutting them off from their supplies and communications. On Aug 14th, Itagaki Seishiro's 5th Division was sent to the relief of the 11th Independent Mixed Brigade at Juyongguan.
On August 16th, Itagaki arrived at Nankou and began an enveloping attack on the right flank of 13th Corps making a five pronged attack at Huanglaoyuan. 7th Brigade of 4th Division under Shih Chueh was moved to block this move and reinforcements of Li Hsien-chou's 21st Division and Chu Huai-ping's 94th Division were brought up, engaging in days of heavy fighting. On August 17th General Yan Xishan, Director of the Taiyuan Pacification Headquarters, directed 7th Army under Fu Zuoyi to move its 72nd Division and three brigades by rail from Tatung to Huailai to reinforce Gen. Tang Enbo's forces.
Meanwhile in northern Chahar the Chinese 1st Cavalry Corps captured Shangtu, Nanhaochan, Shangyi and Huateh from the puppet Mongolian Army of Prince Teh Wang. Elements of 143rd Division took Chungli, while its main force reached Changpei. During this Chinese advance the Japanese Chahar Expeditionary Force under Lt. General Hideki Tojo composed of the mechanized 1st Independent Mixed Brigade and the 2nd and 15th Mixed Brigades gathered for a counteroffensive from Changpei to .
From August 18th to 19th the Chahar Expeditionary Force counterattacked from Changpei, and took Shenweitaiko on the Great Wall and Hanno Dam. The scattered and poorly equipped Chinese forces were unable to stop them and they now threatened the Peiking – Suiyuan Railway at Kalgan. On the 20th Gen. Fu Zuoyi's 7th Army diverted its 200th and 211th Brigades, that had been moving south by rail to join Gen. Tang Enbo's forces, back to defend Kalgan, while its remaining 72nd Division arrived to reinforce Chenpien and 7th Separate Brigade to defend the railhead at Huailai.
On August 21st, the Japanese forces broke through at the cities of Hengling and Chenpien. Gen. Tang Enbo's forces awaiting reinforcement, but having suffered over 50% casualties, still defended Huailai, Chuyung Pass and Yenching. Liu Ju-ming's 143rd Division fell back to defend Kalgan from the advancing Japanese.
On August 23rd, as Itagaki Seishiro's 5th Division pushed toward Huailai from Chenpien against Ma Yen-shou's 7th Separate Brigade, advance elements of the 14th Army Group arrived on the Japanese flank at Chingpaikou, driving off the Japanese outpost there and contacted the Japanese forces advancing to Chenpien and the front beyond. However they were delayed in crossing the and their attack was delayed until it was too late to stop the Japanese advance, and due to poor communications they failed to link up with Gen. Tang En-po's forces. After 8 days and 8 nights fighting, Itagaki on Aug 24th, linked up with Kwantung army's 2nd Independent Mixed Brigade at Xiahuayuan.
On August 26th, Gen. Tang Enbo's forces were ordered to break out toward the Sangchien River while Liu Ju-ming's forces were ordered to withdraw to the far side of the Hsiang-yang River.
On August 29th the Japanese unit the Chinese called the Oui Column or what the Japanese refer to as the Ohizumi Detachment attacked. According to Hsu Long-hsuen this unit moved south from Tushihkou, and on the 30th attacked Yenching via Chihcheng, being repulsed by 17th Corps. A Japanese map of the campaign shows it moved to Guyuan on August 25th to Xuanhua by September 7th, cutting the railroad in the rear of Tang's forces and Chinese forces along the Great Wa11 to the east. See
According to the Chinese account, after repulsing the Oui column attack 17th Corps withdrew to join the rest of Tang Enbo's force on the far side of the Sangchien River. Kalgan, fell September 3rd, and after Gen. Fu Zuoyi's 200th and 211th Brigades failed in a counterattack to recapture it, fell back to the west to defend the railway to Suiyuan at Chaikoupao. This brought and end to Operation Chahar.
According to Time Magazine, on September 4th the South Charhar Government was set up at Kalgan. After the fall of Kalgan, Chahar's "complete independence" from China was declared by "100 influential persons", headed by Prince Teh Wang, a pro-Japanese Mongolian, long head of the "Inner Mongolia for Inner Mongolians" movement. It was Prince Teh with his Mongolian levies who helped the Japanese to take Kalgan. The highest position in this new Japanese puppet state the was his reward.
Notes
*Ohizumi Detachment . It was a battalion from 4th Infantry Regiment of 2nd Division under the Kwantung Army. But, its course is different than the Chinese account says. It moved from Guyuan to Xuanhua . See
* Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The Sino-Japanese War 2nd Ed., 1971. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing; 33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China. Pg. 180- 184 and Map 3
* Jowett, Phillip S., Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan’s Asian Allies 1931-45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihul, West Midlands, England.
* Topographic Maps of China during the Second World War.
** Area of fighting on Great Wall and east of Nankou.
* Topographic Maps of Manchuria during the Second World War.
** Nankou area.
This was the second attack by Kwangtung Army and the Inner Mongolian Army of Prince on Inner Mongolia after the failure of the Suiyuan Campaign . The Chahar Expeditionary Force was under the direct command of General Hideki Tojo, the chief of staff of Kuangtung Army. A second force from the Peiping Railway Garrison Force, later the 1st Army under General Kiyoshi Katsuki was also involved.
Japanese Order of battle
See Order of battle of Operation Chahar.
The Chinese forces opposing this invasion of Suiyuan were the Suiyuan Pacification Headquarters under the command of General Yan Xishan. Fu Zuoyi governor of Suiyuan was made commander of the 7th Army Group and , governor of was made its deputy commander, defending Chahar with 143rd Division and two Brigades. General Tang Enbo was sent by Chiang Kai-shek with 13th and 17th Corps from the Central Army and made Frontline Commander in Chief. 1st Cavalry Corps was in Chahar under the command of Chiao Cheng-shou facing the Mongolian forces of .
Chinese Order of battle
See Order of battle Peiking – Suiyuan Railway Operation.
Following the loss of Peiking, Tang Enbo's 13th Corps took up positions in depth along the Peiking – Suiyuan Railway at Nankou and further to the rear at Juyongguan . His 17th Corps stationed its 84th Division at Chihcheng, Yenching and Lungkuan covering the flank of 13th Corps from Japanese forces in Chahar and its 21st Division at Huailai on the railroad to its rear was in reserve. Chiao Cheng-shou's 1st Cavalry Corps and Liu Ju-ming's 143rd Division and two Peace Preservation Brigades began an attack on the Mongol forces in northern Chahar.
Battle of Nankou
On August 8th the Japanese 11th Independent Mixed Brigade, commanded by Gen. Shigiyasu Suzuki began their attack on the left flank of the 13th Corps position at Nankou but were thwarted after three days by the difficult terrain and stubborn resistance of the Chinese. A new attack on August 11th supported by tanks and aircraft took Nankou Station after which Gen. Suzuki's brigade advanced on Juyong Pass.
That same day, Chiang Kai-shek ordered the activation of the 14th Army Group under Gen. Wei Li-huang. Coming by rail from Yingchia-chuang to Yi Hsien, elements of it were sent on a ten day march through the plains west of Peiking in a turning movement in support of Tang Enbo's forces. The Chinese 1st Army made attacks on the Japanese forces in Lianghsiang and Chaili to distract them and sent a detachment to Heilung Pass to cover the advance of 14th Army Group. From the dates on a Japanese map of the battle these forces did not reach the area until September when it was too late and clashed with the Japanese forces from the 9th to the 17th to no avail.
On August 12th, Tang Enbo's army counterattacked surrounding the Japanese cutting them off from their supplies and communications. On Aug 14th, Itagaki Seishiro's 5th Division was sent to the relief of the 11th Independent Mixed Brigade at Juyongguan.
On August 16th, Itagaki arrived at Nankou and began an enveloping attack on the right flank of 13th Corps making a five pronged attack at Huanglaoyuan. 7th Brigade of 4th Division under Shih Chueh was moved to block this move and reinforcements of Li Hsien-chou's 21st Division and Chu Huai-ping's 94th Division were brought up, engaging in days of heavy fighting. On August 17th General Yan Xishan, Director of the Taiyuan Pacification Headquarters, directed 7th Army under Fu Zuoyi to move its 72nd Division and three brigades by rail from Tatung to Huailai to reinforce Gen. Tang Enbo's forces.
Battle of the Great Wall
Meanwhile in northern Chahar the Chinese 1st Cavalry Corps captured Shangtu, Nanhaochan, Shangyi and Huateh from the puppet Mongolian Army of Prince Teh Wang. Elements of 143rd Division took Chungli, while its main force reached Changpei. During this Chinese advance the Japanese Chahar Expeditionary Force under Lt. General Hideki Tojo composed of the mechanized 1st Independent Mixed Brigade and the 2nd and 15th Mixed Brigades gathered for a counteroffensive from Changpei to .
From August 18th to 19th the Chahar Expeditionary Force counterattacked from Changpei, and took Shenweitaiko on the Great Wall and Hanno Dam. The scattered and poorly equipped Chinese forces were unable to stop them and they now threatened the Peiking – Suiyuan Railway at Kalgan. On the 20th Gen. Fu Zuoyi's 7th Army diverted its 200th and 211th Brigades, that had been moving south by rail to join Gen. Tang Enbo's forces, back to defend Kalgan, while its remaining 72nd Division arrived to reinforce Chenpien and 7th Separate Brigade to defend the railhead at Huailai.
On August 21st, the Japanese forces broke through at the cities of Hengling and Chenpien. Gen. Tang Enbo's forces awaiting reinforcement, but having suffered over 50% casualties, still defended Huailai, Chuyung Pass and Yenching. Liu Ju-ming's 143rd Division fell back to defend Kalgan from the advancing Japanese.
On August 23rd, as Itagaki Seishiro's 5th Division pushed toward Huailai from Chenpien against Ma Yen-shou's 7th Separate Brigade, advance elements of the 14th Army Group arrived on the Japanese flank at Chingpaikou, driving off the Japanese outpost there and contacted the Japanese forces advancing to Chenpien and the front beyond. However they were delayed in crossing the and their attack was delayed until it was too late to stop the Japanese advance, and due to poor communications they failed to link up with Gen. Tang En-po's forces. After 8 days and 8 nights fighting, Itagaki on Aug 24th, linked up with Kwantung army's 2nd Independent Mixed Brigade at Xiahuayuan.
Withdrawal
On August 26th, Gen. Tang Enbo's forces were ordered to break out toward the Sangchien River while Liu Ju-ming's forces were ordered to withdraw to the far side of the Hsiang-yang River.
On August 29th the Japanese unit the Chinese called the Oui Column or what the Japanese refer to as the Ohizumi Detachment attacked. According to Hsu Long-hsuen this unit moved south from Tushihkou, and on the 30th attacked Yenching via Chihcheng, being repulsed by 17th Corps. A Japanese map of the campaign shows it moved to Guyuan on August 25th to Xuanhua by September 7th, cutting the railroad in the rear of Tang's forces and Chinese forces along the Great Wa11 to the east. See
According to the Chinese account, after repulsing the Oui column attack 17th Corps withdrew to join the rest of Tang Enbo's force on the far side of the Sangchien River. Kalgan, fell September 3rd, and after Gen. Fu Zuoyi's 200th and 211th Brigades failed in a counterattack to recapture it, fell back to the west to defend the railway to Suiyuan at Chaikoupao. This brought and end to Operation Chahar.
According to Time Magazine, on September 4th the South Charhar Government was set up at Kalgan. After the fall of Kalgan, Chahar's "complete independence" from China was declared by "100 influential persons", headed by Prince Teh Wang, a pro-Japanese Mongolian, long head of the "Inner Mongolia for Inner Mongolians" movement. It was Prince Teh with his Mongolian levies who helped the Japanese to take Kalgan. The highest position in this new Japanese puppet state the was his reward.
Notes
*Ohizumi Detachment . It was a battalion from 4th Infantry Regiment of 2nd Division under the Kwantung Army. But, its course is different than the Chinese account says. It moved from Guyuan to Xuanhua . See
Sources
* Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The Sino-Japanese War 2nd Ed., 1971. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing; 33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China. Pg. 180- 184 and Map 3
* Jowett, Phillip S., Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan’s Asian Allies 1931-45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihul, West Midlands, England.
* Topographic Maps of China during the Second World War.
** Area of fighting on Great Wall and east of Nankou.
* Topographic Maps of Manchuria during the Second World War.
** Nankou area.
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